The Baltics were the last pagan nations in Europe to Christianize, between the 14th and 15th centuries. Because of this, mythology from the area is a lot more recent than in other areas – however, as the stories were carried by word of mouth, and ever-changing, our knowledge of ancient beliefs is limited to folktales and snippets.

Like many pagan beliefs, the Baltic religion was founded around nature. Gods and goddesses, spirits and creatures were all associated with natural elements and events. This means that god-myths and folktales vary from town to town, depending on local weather conditions and landscapes, as well as political situations and other cultural influences.

So, let’s jump into the top dogs (read: gods) in the Baltic pantheon, along with some of the fascinating mythical creatures from the region.

Baltic gods

1584 Prussian depiction of the gods Perkunas, Potrimpo, and Peckols

The Baltic Pantheon is filled with beautiful stories and striking characters. Many of the gods hold strong similarities to other Asian and European god-myths. While others are unique to the area. You’ll notice that most of these gods have different names in Lithuania and Latvia, and a few small, clear differences.

Saulė

Radiant and beautiful, Saulė is the sun-goddess. Her domain is the regeneration of all life on earth, and she gives life, fertility and warmth to humanity.

Saulė rides through the sky every day in a chariot pulled by tireless horses. Which is the most common myth about the sun-deity in all of ancient Europe. I suppose a god running across the sky wouldn’t be quite as impactful and noble as a carriage ride.

In Saulė’s god-myth, she is married to Mėnuo, the moon, before he falls in love with the morning star. For his infidelity, there are different accounts of his punishment. But the most common is that he is cut up by Perkūnas – and as he never learns from this, it happens every month. And thus, the phases of the moon!

Auseklis/Aušrinė

The morning star and deity of dawn. Auseklis is the Latvian star god, and male. In Lithuania, she is known as Aušrinė, and is female.

In Lithuanian mythology, Mėnuo, the moon, has the abovementioned adulterous relationship with Aušrinė. In Latvian myths, it is Saulė that Auseklis is interested in (or, in some stories, her daughter).

Mara

Perhaps the most important goddess in the Latvian pantheon is Mara. An earth goddess, at times she has been the deification of the earth, and at others simply the goddess of milk production. She’s always been important though, and often, other Latvian goddesses are considered her assistants, or different versions of Mara.

Patroness of feminine duties and economic activities, Mara also takes the bodies of the dead, while Dievas takes their souls. Her myths have been very much conflated with Mary after the Christianization of the Baltic.

Pērkons/Perkūnas

1979 Sculpture of Perkūnas on the Hill of Witches, Juodkrantė – Image by Turaids

The Baltic god of thunder, we already know a bit about Perkūnas – namely, that he has the authority and might to punish the moon for his infidelity.

Natural phenomena were almost all categorized as gods and goddesses in the Baltic, but thunder and lightning would seem to historic peoples to be the most authoritative phenomenon. Fair enough!

Known as Perkons in Latvia, Perkunas in Lithuania and Perkuns in Prussia, the formidable thunder god is one of the most important deities in the Baltic pantheon. Much like Zeus (from Greek mythology), the bearded Pērkons wields an ax and rides a chariot, bringing lightning and rain to the earth below him.

He is the god of order and fertility (uncommon for male gods), and is one of the most popular deities in the Baltic. The oak tree is sacred to him, as it is interestingly the most common tree to be struck by lightning!

Dievs/Dievas

Known as Dievas in Lithuania and Dievs in Latvia (and a bundle of other very similar names in the different Baltic regions), he is the supreme god, the sky god. Ruler over all, this primordial being created the universe and everything within it. Along with the goddess Laima, he is responsible for world order and the fate of humankind.

Unfortunately, all that we really know of Dievs comes from early Christian texts, which are not exactly the most objective sources on pagan belief systems.

Velnias

The brother of Dievas the creator god, Velnias is the counterbalance. As old as his brother, he is the god of primordial chaos and destruction. While Dievas rules over and represents air, light and fire, Vilnius represents the chthonic (subterranean/underworld) elements of earth and water. He also rules over the realm of the dead.

Considered the god of evil, an equivalent to the devil, and a trickster, Velnias can transform into various demonic animals and cause trouble among the living.

You’ll find that the brotherhood of Velnias and Dievas is interestingly similar to the Turkish god-myth of Tengri and Erlik – and many others. The forces of good and evil have often been considered too intertwined to be anything but related!

Laima

The Baltic goddess of fate and destiny, Laima determines the length of your life and the life span of all things. She is also the primary god in determining what a person’s fortunes will be throughout their life.

Laima bestows both good luck and bad. She’s also the patroness of pregnant women – and no wonder, when she’s the one to pronounce every infant’s destiny.

Žemyna/Zemes māte

The earth mother and goddess of earth and fertility, Zemes māte personifies and holds dominion over all life on earth. She represents the feminine aspects of nature, and protects the earth.

In Lithuanian tradition, Žemyna is the mate or wife of Perkūnas. Their wedding is celebrated every spring, when nature once again grows fertile and new.

Like various other goddesses in the Baltic, aspects of the earth mother were integrated into the cult of the Virgin Mary after Christianisation.

Medeina

Protector of the forests, Medeina is a virginal goddess. She is depicted as a young woman or a she-wolf, and runs with a pack of wolves around her. Very cool.

Medeina’s sacred animal is the hare – when hunters in the forests saw a hare bounding past, they would apparently stop the chase, as this was a clear sign that Medeina was there to protect the forest, and could grow angry at their invasion.

Giltine

A number of gods in the Baltic pantheon have authority over death. But the duty of Giltine, sister of Laima, is to kill people when their time comes. This is uncommon, and plays a role in peoples perception of Baltic paganism as overly deterministic.

This morbid figure collects her death poison by roaming graveyards and licking corpses with her serpentine tongue. Quite an occupation for a goddess.

Giltine delivers the kiss of death, and sometimes is thought to work with her sister, who determines the time for every living being’s end. She is depicted as extremely thin and pale, usually wearing white. Sometimes she is a snake or an owl – two very common images of death.

Milda

A very popular name even today, Milda is the Lithuanian goddess of love and freedom (any takers for Giltine as a baby name? It’s not quite as popular). She’s depicted as a beautiful, and sometimes nude, woman with a chariot pulled by doves as her favourite mode of transportation.

The enemy of loneliness, Milda is a great goddess to have on your side. However, it’s likely that she only came into being in the 19th century, and isn’t an ancient goddess at all. Still, she has enough fans that numerous towns celebrate her every May.

Other gods & goddesses within Baltic Paganism

Of course, there are many more Baltic gods and goddess, but these are the primary figures. The remainder of the pantheon includes a god of bees, of milk, the sea, farming, beer (that’s a real favourite of mine), and fire.

1555 Woodcut of people praying with two altars, one with a snake and one with fire

Mythological creatures from the Baltic

We know of only a few mythical creatures from Latvia and Lithuania – no doubt there were once many, but contemporary knowledge around them is scarce. However, we could still find a few fascinating characters.

Aitvaras

Known by a whole host of names, the Aitvaras is a nature spirit in Baltic mythology. Like its names, the creature can take on many forms. A cunning little shapeshifter, its own form is serpentine, like a little dragon. It’s also often alight, with either its head or even its whole body covered in flames.

Aitvaras’ are family guardians, and can bring a lot of good fortune and happiness when they get attached. Usually peacefully disguised as a rooster when in the home, they steal grain and supplies from other households.

Interestingly, the arrival of Christianity brought about quite a change in perspective around these little fiends. They shifted from helpful tricksters and guardian spirits to greedy demons. Eventually, they even served the devil, and were certainly not welcome in the home any longer.

Raganos

A wooden sculpture of a raganos/ragana

The Baltic witch, Raganos, has quite a number of roles in nature. She has features common to witch-myths, like a hideous appearance, spell-casting, and the ability to turn humans into toads, pigs, and other animals.

More than these roles, though, Raganos are sages, seers and deities of the forest depths. They close the dawn, cut the moon, and obscure the sun.

Laumės

Joining the ranks of beautiful nymph ladies who frolic in water across pretty much all ancient mythologies are the Laumės. Once a singular beautiful goddess, Laume came to earth to become a multitude of nymph- or fairy-like creatures. There, they remain emissaries between earth and sky.

Beautiful maidens with fair hair, Laumės dwell in forests near water. They’re very talented with housework and have particularly large breasts (a bit of wish fulfillment slipping in there, I’d say), making terrific wives for those young men lucky enough to marry one.

But Laumės are temperamental, and can punish rude or disrespectful men. They also have a nasty tendency to steal babies, as they feel a strong motherly pull but cannot have children of their own.

Baubas

A small, scary creature used to scare children, a baubas has long arms, wrinkled fingers, and red eyes. Much like the more well-known boogeyman, baubai live in dark parts of the house. They’re evil spirits, and will stifle children or tear at their hair.

Lithuanian Folk tales

Folktales, and folk songs in particular, remain a very important part of Latvian and Lithuanian culture and literature today. Both countries throw multiple folk festivals annually, which you should be sure to check out if you visit the Baltic!

Despite that culture around storytelling, Latvian folktales are actually pretty hard to find! So we’ve found the two most popular Lithuanian folk stories. Expect lost loves and shapeshifting.

Eglė the Queen of Serpents

Sculpture “Eglė the Queen of Serpents” by Robertas Antinis in Palanga, Lithuania – Image by GraceKelly

With more than 100 different versions recorded around Lithuania, this folktale is one of the best-known in the country. It’s also my absolute favourite – but I’ll try to keep this retelling relatively short.

An unusual marriage proposal

In the distant past, a young maiden was bathing in the river with her two sisters. When she gets out and puts on her clothes, she finds a grass snake in the sleeve of her blouse. She tries to shake it off, but it speaks to her in a human voice, insisting she marry it in exchange for leaving. Bit of an unfair trade, but eventually the distraught young woman accepts.

After three days, thousands of snakes slither to her home to claim her as their queen and wife to their master. But Eglė’s horrified family trick them three times, into taking a goose, a sheep, and a cow as their master’s bride. Each time they return to the family when they notice the ruse, until finally they threaten a year of famine if she doesn’t go with them.

King and Queen of the serpents

So Eglė is taken to their king, who lives at the bottom of the sea. But instead of seeing another snake, she meets a handsome young man – Žilvinas, the shapeshifting Grass Snake Prince. Pleasantly surprised, and more than a little relieved, Eglė finds that she enjoys the man’s company, despite circumstances. He shows her the beautiful palace she is to spend eternity with him in, and they spend three weeks feasting and being merry, the newlywed King and Queen of the serpents.

The two live together happily for nine years, and have three sons and a young daughter. Eglė forgets about her own life, until one day her son asks about her parents. Feeling suddenly homesick, Eglė decides to return home for a visit – but her husband forbids her from leaving. When she insists, he sets her three impossible tasks.

Eglė must spin a never-ending thread of silk. Wear down a pair of iron shoes. And bake a pie with no utensils. With help from a sorceress, Eglė completes these unusual tasks. Žilvinas honors the agreement, and lets her go, taking their children to see her family. First though, he instructs them all on how to call him from the sea, and swears them to secrecy.

Eglė’s return to her family

When they finally see Eglė again, her family doesn’t want to let her go. So, in an attempt to learn how to summon her husband, they beat the couple’s sons. They won’t betray him though, until the frightened young daughter gives in and tells them the chant.

Eglės twelve brothers call on the Grass Snake Prince, and kill him with scythes when he emerges from the water. Eglė only discovers the betrayal days later, when she speaks the chant, and finds nothing but bloody foam.

Sculpture of Eglė at Glebe Park – Image by huw-ogilvie

Inconsolable over the death of her beloved, the serpent queen whispers an enchantment, and turns her daughter, who betrayed them through her fear, into a quaking aspen. She then turns her three sons into mighty trees, an oak, an ash, and a birch tree. In a final act of magic, Eglė transforms herself into a spruce.

Jūratė and Kastytis

A far shorter, and similarly popular Lithuanian folk tale, Jūratė and Kastytis follows two star-crossed lovers. Interestingly, the tale reportedly comes from the 19th century and isn’t ancient at all. But it’s certainly popular, and lovely (if sad) enough to be well worth the telling.

Sculpture of the goddess Jūratė in the Lithuanian village of Jurata

In a time when gods still roam the earth, the sea goddess Jūratė lives in an amber palace beneath the sea. There, she rules over the creatures of the Baltic ocean, their protectress.

A young fisherman, Kastytis, begins to disturb the peace of her domain, catching too many fish on the coast. Jūratė decides to punish him, but when she sees the young mortal man, she falls instantly in love.

The two become lovers, and live for a time in Jūratė’s amber castle. But one day, the thunder god Perkūnas discovers their relationship, and grows furious at the goddess for stooping to the level of their mortal creations. And so he strikes her amber castle, shattering it into a million pieces and killing Kastytis. Worse, he chains the goddess to the ruins, leaving her there to mourn her loss for eternity.

In some versions of the story, it is Jūratė’s tears that form the amber pieces that wash ashore in Lithuania. In others, Baltic amber is the remaining pieces of her ruined castle.

Last thoughts on Baltic gods & myths

These are the most interesting – and most well-known – myths from the Baltic countries of Lithuania and Latvia. Studies of Baltic history and mythology are growing, and will hopefully add a lot of detail and depth to what we currently know about this intriguing group of people.

If you know any myths, legends, folktales or god-myths that should be added, let us know! I would love to expand on this list, and learn about more unique creatures and stories that give us some insight into their society and culture.

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The Turks had a massive impact on much of Europe. Because of their nomadic tribal lifestyle, the ancient Turks came into contact with a great many different cultures and beliefs.

Because they’re not originally from Europe, Turkish gods and mythological creatures are very distinct from the myths around them. Still, they’ve influenced and been influenced by the cultures around them.

We’ve put together all the most well-documented and fascinating ancient Turkic mythology, gods, and legends. Read on to learn more about this unique culture and the beliefs that helped shape it.

Turkish gods

While modern Turkey’s neighbours, Greece, had complicated god-myths filled with drama and small details, Turkish gods are relatively simple and straightforward. As they were nomadic, the Turks also seldom built statues and temples to their gods, so many deities and stories have been lost to time and conquests.

The nomadic Turkish tribes adapted and changed myths according to their own beliefs and social structures, so it’s uncommon to find a single fixed god-myth. With that in mind, let’s delve into the ancient Turkish people’s most important gods!

Tengri

Tengri, the great sky god, is the most important Turkish deity. While most of the Turkish peoples’ history is polytheistic, there have been whole centuries where Tengriism has stood as a monotheistic religion.

Tengri, Kök Tengri, or Gok Tengri, is the first primordial deity, and the creator god. We don’t know what he looks like, only that he is all-powerful and fair. In later ideas of the god, no doubt influenced by more modern ideologies, he is also considered the force of good, to Erlik’s evil.

The name is also synonymous with the sky, and can be used to refer to any gods nowadays.

Erlik

Erlik, also called Yerlik and Erlik Han, is the god of evil and the underworld in the Turkic pantheon. He presides over death, and has been punished by Tengri or Ulgen (depending on where you are) for interfering with the creation of mankind.

Much like the Christian devil, Erlik convinced the first humans to eat the forbidden fruit, and was sent to reside over hell for it. He has nine daughters and nine sons, and sits on a silver throne.

Kayra

Legends differ a lot with Kayra Han, but the god, neither male nor female, is undoubtedly one of the most important deities in Tengriism. In some myths, Kayra is the father of Tengri while in others he is his son.

Kayra Han resides on the 17th floor of the sky – the topmost story, or branch when it’s depicted as a tree. He is the ruler over the air, water and land, and flies over the earth as a pure white goose, observing his creation.

Ulgen

Ulgen is a deity often conflated with both Kayra Han and Gok Tengri. He is the protector of humanity, and can be seen as a kind of archangel figure. Ulgen gifted fire to humans, and protects us from his evil brother Erlik.

Ulgen lives in a golden palace and is depicted as strong and long-haired, with a white sun on either side of him. He can also throw lightning and presides over the weather. He is the patron god of shamans, and provides them with their knowledge. He symbolizes goodness and abundance.

Mergen

The son of Ulgen (or Kayra), Mergen is the god of wisdom, reason and abundance. He is quick-witted and wise, as well as an excellent archer. Because of his wisdom, he is considered to be the god that banished evil from the world (although the question then stands, how did the evil get back in?)

Kizagan

The god of war, Kizagan was an important deity amongst the warlike Turkish tribes. He rides a red horse or camel, and is depicted as a strong young man in armour.

Umay

The only goddess on this list is the good-hearted Umay. She is the Turkish goddess of fertility and virginity, protecting women, children and mothers.

Umay is also the favourite wife of Gok Tengri, and together with him provides the life force and victories of the Turkish people. She is symbolised by the colour yellow, and is often associated with the sun, radiating divine power.

Popular Turkish legends

There are legends from all over Turkey which explain how things are created and begun, or epitomise human values and traits. These are just three of the most widespread and celebrated legends in Turkey.

The legend of Sarıkız

One of the most famous legends surrounding Turkey’s Mount Ida is the legend of the pure-hearted Sarıkız. This legend is celebrated every year with a pilgrimage to the peak of Sarıkız Hill and celebrations in the surrounding foothills.

As the legend goes, Sarıkız was a beautiful blonde-haired maiden who lived with her father, Cılbak Baba. She was so beautiful that men would fall instantly in love with her and beg her hand in marriage. But she wasn’t interested in being married, so she turned them all down.

One day, her father left on a long pilgrimage and entrusted her to his neighbour. While he was away, many more suitors came for his daughter, and all were rejected. The men became resentful, and started rumours about Sarıkız’s chastity.

When her father returned, he was told that his daughter had become a prostitute, and that he must kill her or be excommunicated from the village. With a heavy heart, he took her up to the mountains with a small flock of geese, and left her there.

Guilt ate away at him for years for having left his daughter to die. But one day, Cılbak Baba heard rumours of a blonde-haired woman helping travellers navigate the treacherous mountains. He went out in search of her, and eventually found his daughter in the mountains. Sarıkız was happy to see her father despite what he’d done to her.

She gave him water to wash with, but he told her it was salty, and realised that she had miraculously reached over to the ocean and filled it up there. She quickly apologised and rotated the bowl of water to the mountains, and it became clear and sweet. Cılbak Baba understood suddenly that his daughter had become a saint. But on realising this, a dark cloud appeared and she died, her secret discovered. Devastated and dazed, he roamed the mountains before dying on the neighbouring hill.

It’s a sad story, but one the locals are drawn to. Both hills are named after the pair that died on them, and form an important part of local custom and culture.

Ergenekon legend

The legend of Ergenekon is told a number of ways in different parts of Turkey. This is perhaps the most popular version of the founding myth.

Long ago, the Gokturks were defeated in battle and had to flee their lands. They fled into the mountains, and sought refuge in the fruitful and beautiful Ergenekon valley, surrounded by mountains. There they flourished, growing in numbers and strength. Eventually, they found they were trapped within the mountains, and remained there for four centuries.

After this time, the valley had grown overpopulated and they knew they had to leave. A Gokturk blacksmith freed them by melting the iron in the rocks – according to some stories, setting fire to 70 separate spots. This opened a gate in the mountains so that they could leave, but after so many generations, they could no longer remember their way through the mountain passes.

A grey wolf appeared to the men and led them out of the mountains, symbolising the support of the gods. The Gokturks went on to win many battles, and regain their importance as a local power. They split up into many tribes, but always remembered their communal origins.

Leyla and Mecnun

The story of Leyla and Mecnun is a tragic, ancient and widespread one. According to the legend, Leyla and Qays were school friends who fell in love with each other. Leyla’s parents did not approve of the match, and forbade their daughter from marrying Quays despite seeing their true love.

The young man withdrew into the wilderness, wretched with loss. He would recite poetry of his love for Leyla to the animals and plants, and walk through the deserts. Eventually, he was given the name Mecnun, which means ‘possessed with madness’. His parents, concerned for him but resigned to their son’s decision, would leave food for him at the edge of the wilderness. There he roamed for years, driven mad by love.

Eventually, Leyla was married to another man. But she could not love him, and the marriage only served to deepen her sadness at the loss of her love. Soon she died of a broken heart.

When news of her death reached Mecnun, he travelled to where she was buried, moving determinedly for the first time in years. When he found her he wept, surrendering to his unimaginable grief. He took his life, and died at the graveside of his love.

Turkish mythological creatures and monsters

Turkish monsters and creatures are varied and dark, often interacting with humans and causing tragedy and loss. You’ll also see some interesting similarities to mythical figures from Portugal’s past.

Bichura

Bichura is a house spirit, traditionally believed to live in every house, and shapeshift between the form of a cat or dog and a human. When in human form, it wears red dresses. But you’re not likely to see it! Bichuras warn their household’s members of danger by pulling on hair or making a noise – but if you spot it, this forewarns of death.

If the creature grows discontent, it plays tricks on its household, and you have to figure out what’s gone wrong and fix it for things to return to normal.

Basty and Al Basty

Not a very pleasant mythical creature, Basty is the spirit of nightmares. It sits on peoples’ chests, giving them bad dreams.

This creature is a little different to Al Basty, a succubus-like figure who personifies guilt. In some communities, she’s also known as the ‘red mother’. A connection spied between mothers and guilt, perhaps?

Khyrtyq

This unusual creature is a malicious swamp demon. She’s blood-thirsty and violent, and lives near the kinds of bodies of water you’d tell your children not to stray near without a guardian.

Archura

Archura is a shapeshifting woodland spirit. He protects the forests and the animals, and usually appears as a peasant man. But he can change his size from that of a blade of grass to a tall tree. His hair and beard are living grass, and he has no shadow.

As wonderful as the Archura sounds, they are seldom friends of man. They’re defensive of their forests, and mischievous beings. So while they’re not evil, they’re not great neighbours either.

Karakoncolos

A devilish and fascinating Turkish myth is the Karakoncolos. This hairy, malevolent goblin appears at the coldest time of year.

They stand on murky corners, and set riddles or ask random questions of passers-by. These people have to answer any question using the Turkish word for ‘black’, otherwise they are struck dead. No doubt there was some reasoning behind this once, but that’s lost now.

The Karakoncolos would also imitate the voices of loved ones, luring people out into the cold and snow.

Erbüke

The king of snakes, Erbüke is a wise and kindly man with the lower body of a serpent. His (and sometimes her) name is a combination of the words for human and dragon. According to legend, he ruled what was once a kingdom of intelligent and peaceful snakes.

Other Turkic mythological creatures

Of course, there are many other mythical figures from the ancient and pre-Christian Turks. We simply don’t know enough about them, as folk beliefs so often stay oral traditions, without ever being transcribed.

A few interesting beings without much information are the Ardow, drowned spirits of human souls who suck others into swamps to drown them too; Peri, gorgeous fairy-like creatures who can be like angels or demons; Chak, who corrupts peasants; and Shurala, who lures his victims into the forest and then tickles them to death. What fascinating and unusual myths the Turkic peoples had!

Last thoughts on Turkish myths

These mythical creatures, folk tales, and Turkic gods are just the tip of the iceberg! If you know any other stories, feel free to comment and we’ll try to find and add them. There’s so much to learn about every culture.

Interested in more mytholgy content? Read about Croatian folklore and Hungarian legends.

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Αφροδίτη (afro-THEE-tee)

Aphrodite, the ancient Greek goddess of love, has been the inspiration for more works of art than any other mythological figure in history. Her divine beauty and appealing patronage have made her a uniquely fascinating character for thousands of years.

The lovely goddess is fickle and vain, capable of enticing both gods and men, and as quick to punish as she is to reward. But Aphrodite is more than a goddess of love – she was long worshipped as a goddess of war and commerce too!

We’ve put together her origin myths, her worship and patronage, her lovers and children, and the most famous myths about this heavenly character from Greek mythology.

Aphrodite’s cult

‘The Cyprian goddess, who sends sweet longing upon the gods, and overcomes peoples of mortal kind, and the birds that fly in heaven, and all the numerous creatures that the land and sea foster’ (Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite)

Head of a statue of Aphrodite, c. 300–290 BC.

Aphrodite, goddess of love, had her main cult centres in Athens (Attica), Cythera, Cyprus, and Corinth. Prostitutes considered her their patron goddess, but she was worshipped by both men and women across ancient Greece.

Aphrodite’s epithets & other names

Cyprus – this is where she was born to Zeus and Dione in one myth; the Greek gods are often known by their birthplace

Cytherea – this is where she arrived as a newborn in another origin myth

Venus – her later Roman name

Callipygian/Kallipygos – this means ‘of the beautiful buttocks’

Ourania – a cultic epithet meaning ‘heavenly’ and connecting her to her father Ouranos

Aphrodite Pandemos – this means ‘Aphrodite for all the people’ and was commonly used as part of her cultic celebrations

Androphonos – meaning ‘killer of men’

Skotia – meaning ‘of the darkness’

Patronage

Love, sex, beauty, pleasure and procreation, intimacy and deceit.

Attributes (how to recognise her in art)

1, Beautiful youthful figure

2. She’s often depicted naked or half-robed (she’s the only goddess who is)

3. She is sometimes accompanied by a baby Eros, her son

4. She sometimes rides a swan or a male goat

5. Before 400 BC she is depicted fully clothed, so she is more difficult to identify

6. Her symbols include dolphins, apples, doves, sparrows, conch shells, roses, and myrtle flowers

Aphrodite on a swan. 460 BC tondo from an Attic white-ground red-figured kylix. Image by Marie-Lan Nguyen

Aphrodisia festival

The annual Aphrodisia festival was celebrated every fourth month of the year in several Greek towns. Cyprus and Attica were home to the largest celebrations. Here, the Aphrodisia would continue for three days in most of its (documented) locations, with dancing, athletic games and feasting.

These ritualistic festivals would begin with the purification of her temples with the blood of a dove, Aphrodite’s sacred bird. Worshippers would then carry statues of Aphrodite and Peitho, goddess of persuasion and seduction and companion to the love goddess, to be washed and prepared. Worshippers would offer fire, incense, flowers, and white he-goats to the goddess, keeping them alive rather than the common blood sacrifices.

In Cyprus, initiates to the Mysteries of Aphrodite were offered bread baked in the shape of a phallus and sea-salt, signifying Aphrodite’s connection to the carnal and to the sea.

Aphrodite’s origin myths

The Birth of Venus, 1485. Sandro Botticelli’s famous masterpiece

As with all of the Greek gods, Aphrodite has multiple origin stories. The most common is simple – she is the daughter of Zeus and Dione, a Titaness. But Dione just translates to goddess, and there’s almost no information about her out there, making it a bit of a boring story.

The second is that she is far older than Zeus and the Olympians. In this myth, Aphrodite is born from the floating genitals of the primordial sky god…

How this came about is, Gaia (Mother Earth) and Ouranos (Father Sky) were lovers, creating the Titans together. But Ouranos hid his children in a cave deep within Gaia, refusing to bring them up to the light for fear they would overthrow him. So finally, after having all her children buried within her, Gaia made a plan. She fashioned a hook from adamantine, and her last-born son, Kronos, used it from within the cave to cut off his father’s genitals and fling them away.

The blood from this wound created the ‘powerful Erinyes and the great Giants in gleaming armour’ (Hesiod) as well as the ash-tree nymphs. The genitals themselves fell into the sea. From them, a white foam formed, and a girl formed inside this.

When the foamy loins approached Cythera, ‘out stepped a modest and beautiful goddess, and the grass began to grow all round beneath her slender feet’ (Hesiod). And so, she is called Cytherea because she approached this island first, and Aphrodite because she was formed in the foam, which in Greek is ‘aphros’ (αφρός)!

The origins & influences of Aphrodite’s myth

The cult of Aphrodite was influenced by the cult of the Mesopotamian goddess known as Ishtar or Inanna around the eighth century BC. the Phoenicians and the Assyrians brought her worship to Cyprus and Cythera, and it spread from there.

The Near-Eastern goddess was associated with love, sex, and war, and when Aphrodite began appearing in artworks, her iconography was nearly identical to Ishtar’s. She too, began as a warlike goddess, often depicted bearing arms. It was only later that she lost these associations.

Stories of Aphrodite

Lambert Sustris’ 1550 ‘Venus and Cupid’

Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, has many stories and many lovers. She’s quite a sneaky character, tricking gods and mortals into falling in love with the help of her son Eros. And she herself falls in love a good few times.

I’ve put together some of the most common myths about the goddess, to present a well-rounded picture of her character, and what she gets up to!

Aphrodite and the Trojan War

The Trojan War is one of the biggest, most fascinatingly complex myths in Greek mythology. And Aphrodite’s role in it is ever so important!

Wedding of Thetis and Peleus

It all starts when Aphrodite, Hera and Athena are thrown into a bitter dispute over who of them is the fairest in all the land.

They were all at the wedding of the nymph Thetis and hero Peleus, having a nice time. But Eris, goddess of Discord, was not invited and when she tried to join the festivities, she was asked to leave. Super rude. So, as her nature would suggest, she sewed some discord by throwing a golden apple into the party addressed ‘To the Fairest’. And who wouldn’t want a golden apple from a bitter woman…

The judgement of Paris

Peter Paul Rubens’s ‘Judgement of Paris’, created between 1632 and 1635 

So all three goddesses lay claim to the apple, and Zeus has to step in to mediate. But he isn’t fond of the idea of two goddesses angry with him. So he backs out and sends them to the mortal prince, Paris. Paris, son of King Priam, was known to be a fair judge.

But the goddesses are all sore losers, and honestly, not great at playing fair. After Paris fails to judge them with clothes on, they all three strip naked. But none of them are willing to leave it up to their looks to decide who was the fairest of all. Instead, they offer Paris some very blatant bribes.

Hera, mother of the gods, offers Paris unimaginable wealth and the role of king over all Europe and Asia. Athena offers him all skill and knowledge, making him the greatest warrior and most knowledgeable man in the world. And Aphrodite offers him the most beautiful mortal woman to be his wife.

Paris awards the apple to Aphrodite, incurring the wrath of Hera and Athena, and embroiling them all in a world of trouble. Because the most beautiful woman in the world was Helen of Troy, and she’s already married to old King Menelaus.

And so, the Trojan War

In order for Paris to actually claim his prize, he will have to go kidnap Helen from the Spartan king. But he does so, with Aphrodite’s help. King Menelaus then launches over 1000 ships to retrieve her, everyone picks sides, Hera and Athena aid Menelaus, and prophecies come to pass.

The adultery of Aphrodite and Ares

Alexandre Charles Guillemot’s 1827 depiction of the lovers being caught

There are a number of different versions of this story, but the most common is that Aphrodite and Ares are long-time lovers, having initially been tricked into love by Aphrodite’s sneaky little son.

Then one day, Hephaestos decides to punish his mother, Hera, for flinging him from Mount Olympus by giving her a golden throne that she cannot get out of. Zeus, desperate to get his wife out of the accursed throne, offers Aphrodite’s hand in marriage to whoever brings Hephaestos to them to undo the curse. Aphrodite agrees, thinking that her warrior-lover will certainly prevail. But he doesn’t – rather, Hephaestos brings himself, and so he’s the one to marry the goddess.

So, to be fair, this is not an ideal marital situation for the goddess of love. And Aphrodite and Ares don’t stop being lovers – they just become adulterers. One day, Helios, the sun god, sees Ares slipping into Aphrodite’s marriage bed, and he tells the craftsman god.

Enraged, Hephaistos ‘set himself to forge chains that could not be broken or torn asunder, being fashioned to bind lovers fast. Such was the device that he made in his indignation against Ares, and having made it he went to the room where his bed lay’ (Homer). The chains, strong as they are, are featherlight and invisible, setting a perfect trap.

The lovers soon join each other, Ares whisking Aphrodite off to the bed. But there they’re trapped, pinned down completely, and quickly realise with shame what has happened. Hephaestos returns to the house, ‘cut to the heart’ (Homer). He cries out to all the gods to come and see the adulterers so that they know how his marriage bed is shamed.

Joachim Wtewael’s far more boisterous ‘Mars and Venus Surprised by Vulcan’, 1601

The goddesses stay indoors, but all the male gods come to see what all the ruckus is about. The pair are well and truly shamed before Poseidon finally convinces Hephaistos to let them go, telling him that if Ares doesn’t pay his debt to the lame god for this, then he himself will. And freed from the chains, they both flee in different directions.

I’ll note here that Plato critiqued Homer’s depictions of the gods in this story, because they all had various lovers, so Aphrodite and Ares would not have necessarily been embarrassed! This incident also leads to their divorce, and Aphrodite is free to be Ares’ consort, and Hephaistos to marry again.

Aphrodite and Anchises, her mortal lover

Venus and Anchises by William Blake Richmond, 1889-1890

Aphrodite loves to boast and laugh about how she couples gods with mortals, overcoming their own will in the matter. so, to punish her for repeatedly tricking him into falling in love with mortal women, Zeus enacts a little payback.

He ‘casts a sweet longing into Aphrodite’s own heart to couple with a mortal man’ (Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite), the shepherd Anchises.

Seized by love, Aphrodite dresses herself up with the help of the Muses, putting on gold jewellery and a shining dress. But she disguises herself as a virginal maiden and goes to Anchises like this. As soon as he sees her, Anchises recognises that she is immortal (I think the shining dress was a dead giveaway) and begs her not to hurt him or his line. She says ‘whaaaa… I’m not a goddess, whatever would make you think that, absurd’, or something like. Rather, she tells him that she’s a mortal woman kidnapped by Hermes and plonked here, told to marry the man Anchises.

Delighted, Anchises says that if she really is to be his wife, he cannot go another moment without making love to her! So they go to his well-laid bed covered in fur and blankets and conveniently located right there.

When their passion is exhausted, Aphrodite puts him to sleep, and changes her form. She then wakes him up again, and he is aghast – men who sleep with immortal women tend to suffer greatly and usually just end up dead. And one of her epithets is ‘killer of men’… But she tells him not to worry. She’s very ashamed of sleeping with a mortal man, but she won’t kill him. In fact, she is pregnant with his son (the gods don’t waste time).

The son will be named Aeneas, and he will rule the Trojans. She won’t raise him herself, she’s above that. But she’ll give the boy to the nymphs to raise, and then he will be brought to his father when he comes of age. And that’s it! She departs, leaving Anchises shocked and just grateful to have all his limbs. But if he ever tells anyone about this, he’s dead meat.

A quick note on Aeneas

It’s important to note that while Aphrodite cannot raise a mortal son herself, she never forgets about Aeneas. Rather, she leads him out of a few binds and weaves tricks to ensure his victory – always while disguised. Not well disguised though, and in Virgil’s Aeneid, he calls after her ‘Why do you so often mock your own son by taking on these disguises? You are too cruel’ (Virgil).

Pygmalion & his marble love

Étienne Maurice Falconet’s 1763 Pygmalion & Galatea (sneaky Eros may have had something to do with this one, too) 

In this story made famous by the Roman orator Ovid, Pygmalion is a sculptor who sets out to create the perfect woman from marble. He labours long over his work, and in the end the sculpture is so beautiful, so perfect that he cannot help but fall in love with her. He decks her in beautiful jewellery and fine clothes, and stares at her perfect face daily, obsessed.

Pygmalion is ashamed of himself and his strange desire. But when Aphrodite’s yearly festival comes around, he makes offerings to the love goddess and prays that he finds a woman ‘the living likeness of my ivory girl’ (Ovid).

Aphrodite takes pity on the talented sculptor, particularly when she goes to the sculpture and finds that it looks an awful lot like her. There’s nothing Aphrodite likes more than a good compliment.

So when he returns home and gives his sculpture a kiss (everyday, ordinary thing to do) he finds that her lips are soft and warm. Aphrodite brought his sculpture to life! He and Galatea (the living sculpture’s name) live happily ever after.

Interestingly, this story has been compared with more modern stories of men shaping wild and unrefined women into their own educated ideal. Particularly because Pygmalion is suspicious and disdainful of real women. In fact, the famous movie My Fair Lady is based on a 1913 play called Pygmalion!

Hippolytus

Hippolytus, Phaedra and Theseus by unknown 18th-century German school artist

Hippolytus is a tragic figure, punished for favouring one goddess and one path over another. In the story, Hippolytus is the son of the hero Theseus and the Amazonian queen Hippolyta.

He grows into a fine, very handsome young man. But Hippolytus is dedicated to the virginal goddess Artemis, and vows to stay chaste his whole life. Aphrodite takes great offense at this – a beautiful youth rejecting sensual love! So she curses Phaedra, Hippolytus’ stepmother, to fall in love with him. Phaedra pines after the young man, and eventually tries to seduce him. But Hippolytus spurns her advances and rejects her.

Distraught and bitter, Phaedra kills herself – but not before telling Theseus that his son tried to rape her. Theseus is enraged, and is unwilling to listen to his son (so many of these stories include a terrible lack of communication). So he prays to Poseidon, asking him to kill his oldest son.

So, while Hippolytus is driving his chariot along the coast, Poseidon sends a terrible sea-monster to spook his horses, and he dies in a crash.

Some versions have a happy ending to the story though. Artemis, mourning the death of her devotee, has Aeschlepius resuscitate him, and brings him somewhere safe.

Aphrodite’s lovers & children

Aphrodite is the mother of a number of gods and heroes. The most important of these is always Eros, her bow-wielding companion.

Eros

Detail of Eros bending his bow by Lysippos, c. 390 BC – this is a 1st century AD Roman copy

By far the most famous of Aphrodite’s children, Eros deserves special mention. He isn’t her child in every myth – in Hesiod’s Theogony, Eros is a primordial god who came into existence in the beginning of time, a nature god as important as Gaia herself. He even attends Aphrodite at her birth.

But in most stories, he is the cheeky young son of the goddess of love. He wields a bow and arrows, which he uses to plant desire in the hearts of men and women. His realm is specifically passionate, sensual love, and it’s his name that the term ‘erotic’ comes from!

Lovers & her children by them

Statue of Aphrodite. This is a 2nd c. AD version of the 4th c. BC Syracuse Aphrodite

Aphrodite has a long list of lovers and a longer list of kiddies. One man she did not have children by is her poor husband Hephaestus – not in a single myth.

Ares

The mighty god of war, Ares is Aphrodite’s most famous consort.

Phobos: Not the most glamorous son, Phobos is the personification of fear and panic. He is his father’s attendant, sewing panic before war.

Deimos: The personification of dread and terror, Deimos is Phobos’s twin brother, and likewise attends his father.

Harmonia: Thankfully, not all their children are almighty awful. Harmonia is the goddess of harmony and concord.

The four Erotes: Winged gods associated with sex and love, these ever-youthful gods attend their mother. Eros is the most well-known of them, and in many stories, he is the only one. In others, his brothers are Anteros, Himeros, and Pothos. In some myths, they are all Ares’ children, while in others they are sired by different gods.

Anchises

Anchises is Aphrodite’s little indiscretion – the mortal man Zeus tricks her into falling in love with, and who she then tricks into sleeping with her before revealing her true likeness.

Aeneas: The son of mortal man and heavenly woman, Anchises is a hero who features in a number of stories about the Trojan War.

Dionysus

Dionysus, also known as Bacchus, is the god of wine and dance and a general good time. Of course Aphrodite spent a few happy nights with this god!

Hymenaeus: The god of marriage and ceremonies, and the lyric poetry sung to the bride as she’s carried to her husband’s house (very specific). He’s known to be an incredibly beautiful god. In some stories, he is Apollo’s son, not Dionysus’, and in others, he is one of the Erotes.

Iacchus: A minor god whose name is evoked during the Eleusinian Mysteries. In some stories, he is simply another name for Dionysus.

Priapus: A fertility god and protector of gardens and livestock, and male genitals. He is known for his permanently erect and oversized penis, and was frequently used as a humorous element in later Roman stories.

Hermes

Hermaphrodites: A minor god with both male and female genitalia, Hermaphrodites is the god of effeminate men. In one myth he was a beautiful youth, and when a young woman fell in love with him and prayed that they’d be forever united, the god bound them together in one physical form.

Priapus: In some myths, this fertility god was Hermes’ son, not Dionysus’.

Adonis

Beroe: A nymph and mortal, Beroe was raised by Astraia, virgin goddess of justice. Wooed by both Poseidon and Dionysus, she eventually married the god of the sea.

Golgos: Little is known about this minor character, besides the fact that he was the son of Aphrodite and Adonis.

Greek mythology’s Aphrodite

Because plays were created and performed so regularly, and artistic tradition was held in such high regard in Ancient Greece, there are many myths about the gods, and dozens of stories about Aphrodite. But these are some of the best preserved and well-known among them.

If you think I’ve missed any important details about the goddess of love, please let me know!

Ancient sources

Ovid. Metamorphoses. Circa 8 AD. Translated by Raeburn, D. 2004

Hesiod. Theogony.  Circa 700 BC. Translated by West, M. L. 2003

Virgil. Aeneid. Translated by West, D. 1991

Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite. Translated by West, M. L.

Homer. The Iliad. Circa 700 BC. Translated by Pope, T.

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Germany’s history as a nation is a broad and difficult subject to tackle, but in a way that is often surprising. Germany as a unified entity is much younger than you might think, and the German Empire lasted for much less time than you may imagine. It only came into existence in 1871, well after Napoleon, and a mere 47 years before its dissolution in the First World War.

To fully understand the German Empire, and more generally the idea of a unified German state, we need to first look back a little further, to the Holy Roman Empire (and Napoleon!).

The Holy Roman Empire

The Holy Roman Empire (HRE) was famously described by Voltaire in 1756 as “neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire.” It is hard to disagree with him. By 1806, the HRE was wracked by internal conflict, and certainly as far from Roman as it gets, with barely a foothold left in Italy (Venetia).

It was barely even Roman Catholic, let alone Holy, considering that it had utterly failed to reign in the Protestant Reformation in Northern Germany a century and a half prior.

The rising military power of Protestant Prussia in opposition to Catholic Austrian authority within the Empire certainly didn’t help. And when, in 1806, Napoleon shattered the Austrian and then Austro-Russian armies at Ulm and Austerlitz, the prestige and legitimacy of the HRE as a state reached such a low that it could not continue.

The then-Emperor, Francis II Habsburg of Austria, abdicated on the 6th of August of that year, and his abdication marked the final end of the HRE as a political entity.

The historical crown of the Holy Roman Emperors. Interestingly, the sapphire at the top centre of the front plate is a replacement for a legendary gem whose brilliance and colour was, by all accounts, unique. That stone disappeared without cause or trace sometime after the 1300s.

Napoleonic Germany

The destruction of the HRE had been the first of the Napoleonic Wars: The War of the Third Coalition. In West Germany, Napoleon created a buffer state as a client of France called the Confederation of the Rhine, in order to protect France from invasion by powers further east.

Many of the battles of the Napoleonic Wars were fought in German territories, and many states fought on both sides at different points in time. Austria and Prussia were leading opponents to Napoleon at several points in time, although towards the latter stages they were subordinated by France.

The spread of Ideas

That points to another important factor in German and indeed European history: occupations of European states by Revolutionary French troops. Napoleon was not leading some old, traditional Empire. He was leading a state that had been completely overthrown with ideas of Nationalism and Liberalism and rule for the people and so on.

The soldiers fighting in his armies were not the sons of nobles and career warriors, but of farmers and tradesmen and common people – the people most stunned and excited by these ideas. And soldiers don’t just sit in their camps sharpening their bayonets between battles – they interact with the locals; especially at this point in history.

Imagine being told for just about the first time that rulers and the ruled should have the same rights before the law of the land. That state borders should be drawn based on the culture of the people within the state, rather than the property rights of its king. That all individuals should be free to pursue any life they are capable of pursuing. And imagine not only being told that, but also finding out that the world’s greatest military, cultural, and political power, France, actively practices those ideas on every level of society (mostly).

These things aren’t being proclaimed to you by some distant power figure you see for one speech every few years if you’re lucky; these ideas are being shared with you in an enthusiastic manner by someone just like you. Not only that, but laws and governments were being reformed based on the French model as quickly as Napoleon was conquering countries – which was very quickly.

The presence of French troops, legal practices, and government throughout Europe, and especially Germany, for the decade of the Napoleonic Wars sowed the seeds of nationalism and liberalism on a grand scale.

The Napoleonic Wars went on fiercely and intermittently for a further nine years after 1806, ending with the decisive defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815 and the Congress of Vienna in 1814-15. By the end, the puppet Confederation of the Rhine was of course disbanded, leaving a massive power vacuum in Germany.

The German Confederation

A contemporary illustration of the Congress of Vienna. Author unknown, 1814.

The two-year-long Congress of Vienna redrew the borders of Europe after the defeat of Napoleon. The many independent German states, fearful of renewed domination by France in the future, organised a mutual defence pact including just about all of the former states of the HRE, notably excluding Switzerland.

This defensive organisation was termed the German Confederation, and despite its name, it is generally not regarded as having been a true state. It would be more accurate to think of it as somewhat analogous to today’s European Union or United Nations.

There was a central, semi-democratic parliament mostly composed of officials from the governments of member states. This body had little actual power though, and served mostly as a diplomatic tool to encourage cooperation between member states.

However, the German Confederation was mostly doomed as an effective political effort for one very clear reason: it included both the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia.

Despite the dissolution of the HRE, Austria still controlled the very large empire they’d accumulated under the direct jurisdiction of the Austrian (not Holy Roman) crown. In modern terms, this empire covered all of Austria, a good chunk of northeast Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Czechia, Slovakia, some of Romania, and a bit of northern Serbia (that bit of Serbia became very important around 1911). In short, Austria was still a great power. But so was Prussia.

The Prussian military was widely believed to be among the best in the world, and the rich Prussian territories sprawled across northern Germany all the way into what is now northeast Poland. While they had cooperated closely at some points during the Napoleonic Wars, their rivalry resumed quickly once the threat of France was dealt with.

The German Confederation was marked constantly by diplomatic and economic sparring between the two great powers, as each tried to corral the other German states into their respective spheres of influence.

The Prussian Lion circles the Austrian Elephant. Menzel, 1846.

Opposition to Liberalism and Nationalism

Napoleon’s defeat had meant the re-assertion of the traditional authority of privilege and nobility, with the Congress of Vienna having largely been aimed at containing Nationalism and Liberalism within France, and to prevent the formation of a powerful Nationalist movement in Germany or Italy.

This may seem counterintuitive, given that the “threat” of a nationalist movement would be the establishment of a strong, unified, and industrialised nation state in Germany or Italy, and it was largely German and Italian dignitaries who dominated the Congress. However, keep in mind that the individuals making these decisions were part of the established ruling class, whose legitimacy stemmed from tradition and privilege. Any Nationalist and especially any Liberal movement would surely aim to depose these individuals in particular.

Every effort was made to safeguard the power of the old monarchies, even at the expense of slowed industrialisation and inefficient militaries.

Prussian Reforms

However, Prussia was not entirely on-board with this. While Prussia stood out throughout its history as an extraordinarily conservative state, it is also very much the source of the stereotypical image of the German as a hyper-efficient, militaristic, pragmatic, and almost automaton-like human being.

The Prussian nobility and monarchy was not content with the severe military defeats that Prussia had suffered in the wars against Napoleon, and sought to incorporate the strengths of the Revolutionary French state into their conservative, noble-dominated government. The result was striking, and still iconic today.

Prussia passed a series of reforms during this period that modernised and professionalised the military, heavily encouraged industry at the expense of the old medieval guilds, and broadened and improved education. They also narrowed the responsibilities and obligations of the local nobility (the Junkers) to focus their efforts on military matters, abolished serfdom to better motivate the population, and implemented universal male conscription.

These were among a host of other measures that preserved the power of the monarchy while dramatically increasing the strength of the state.

The Spring of Nations

Revolutionaries in Berlin in 1848. While the revolutions were almost entirely nationalistic, some wanted a unified empire while others wanted a unified republic. Hence, horizontal tricolour (monarchist) and vertical tricolour (republican, aligned like the tricolours of the French Revolution) are both present. Author unknown, circa 1848-50.

Meanwhile, despite every effort to stamp them out, the ideas mentioned earlier were fermenting. Eventually, the 1848 Revolutions, or the Spring of Nations, broke out in Europe. This was a massive wave of liberal and nationalistic revolutions that left their mark on just about every country in Europe today.

In Germany, it led to widespread calls for a unified state. A revolutionary parliament was established in Frankfurt to supersede the German Confederation, and a German Empire was declared.

The Frankfurt Parliament offered the crown of the newly-declared German Empire to the king of Prussia, Frederick William IV Hohenzollern, but he refused. Famously, he believed that the Frankfurt Parliament did not have the authority to offer such a thing, and stated that he would not accept “a crown from the gutter.”

This German Empire lasted barely a year, from 1848 to 1849, before Prussia’s military thoroughly crushed the revolutionaries. The German Confederation was reconstituted in 1851, but its authority was even smaller than it had been before, and Prussia was very interested in a unified Germany – a unified Germany established on Prussian terms, under Prussian leadership and Prussian administration, and preserving the power of Prussian nobility and monarchy.

This was at direct odds with Austria’s aim in re-establishing the Confederation, which was to prevent such a thing. As you might imagine, the post-revolutionary peace did not last very long.

A contemporary painting of the interior of the Frankfurt Parliament in June 1848. While the black red and yellow tricolour may seem familiar now, at the time it was a nationalist revolutionary symbol with its origins in a volunteer militia who fought against Napoleonic French occupation more than 30 years prior. Von Elliot, 1848.

The Brothers’ War

In 1864, Prussia and Austria collaborated in a war against Denmark to conquer the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which is essentially the territory at the base of the Danish peninsula. They agreed to jointly administer the duchies, which lay adjacent to Prussia and very far from Austria.

By 1866, Prussian public opinion was strongly against what was seen as violations by Austria of the co-rulership agreement. The legendary Prussian foreign minister, the Count Otto von Bismarck, had orchestrated this alliance with Austria and war with Denmark with the specific intent of pushing Prussia and Austria into a war which Prussia was certain to win.

Count Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Prussia and the German Empire and the engineer of the unification of Germany. Picture from 1890.

Central Europe in 1866

Much had changed and remained the same in wider Germany and the surrounding great powers. The North German states were strongly aligned with Prussia, while the South German states were strongly aligned with Austria.

In France, the Bourbon monarchy was restored after Napoleon, then deposed to be replaced by a more popular monarch, who was then deposed in the 1848 Revolutions to be replaced by a republic, which suffered a coup d’état by Napoleon III (nephew of the Napoleon), who proclaimed himself Emperor of France.

Napoleon III, while eager to acquire German territory along the Rhine river, was confident of a Prussian defeat in any potential war between Austria and Prussia, and so opted to remain neutral to be better able to enforce his demands on a weakened Prussia.

Russia was still furious with Austria over their actions around the Crimean War, and so would not intervene on the Austrian side. The United Kingdom was disinterested in the potential conflict, and so would not support either side.

Italy, which had largely remained a somewhat fractured collection of small and medium-sized states like Germany, had finally managed to fight off Bourbon rule and establish a nationalist monarchy – immediately recognised as a new great power. They were eager to acquire the Austrian province of Venetia, as Venetians were very much considered part of the Italian Nation. As a result, Italy agreed to an aggressive, short-term alliance with Prussia against Austria in 1866.

Thus, even before war broke out, it was clear that Austria would be fighting against two great powers with no support from anyone outside of Germany.

Austro-Prussian military situation

Prussia had an overwhelmingly superior military by 1866. The Austrian army was in many ways compromised for political reasons.

Units were constituted weeks away from soldiers’ homes so that whole military units would not join local uprisings, meritocracy was barely considered in promotions, units from different cultural groups did not cooperate well, the rigid power structure was unwilling or unable to implement modern military tactics, and reservists were not well-trained.

Additionally, the Prussian rail network was vastly more extensive than the Austrian, and the Prussian infantry was dramatically better equipped.

Overall, the Prussian army was better motivated, trained, equipped, supplied, and organised, with the ability to mobilise faster, and the ability to concentrate vast numbers of men at a single point of conflict incredibly quickly.

The Seven Weeks’ War

Tensions over the duchies and large troop movements on all sides resulted in Prussia declaring that prior agreements were void, and invading Holstein. The war was over quickly and decisively, lasting approximately seven weeks (as the alternative name implies).

The Italians fought on roughly even terms with the Austrians in the south, including suffering a decisive naval defeat against the Austrian navy. In the north though, the Prussians smashed Austria’s German allies with little resistance, culminating in their stunning victory at the Battle of Königgrätz (kuhh-nig-grehts) in modern Czechia.

The Battle of Königgrätz

In Königgrätz, the main northern Austrian army, supported by the army of Saxony, was dug into fortified positions with heavy, long-range artillery support. The Prussians were determined to attack and dislodge them from this position.

The Prussian artillery was notably shorter ranged than the Austrians’, and, due to logistical problems, the Prussian force at the outset of the battle was only a little more than half the size of the combined Austrian army. Despite this, by the time Prussian reinforcements arrived, well after the attack commenced in the morning, the Austrian and Saxon armies had been forced to retreat with grievous casualties after an incredible effort by the outnumbered Prussian infantry.

They had successfully forded a river under heavy fire, held out against dramatic numerical superiority, and destroyed the vast majority of Austrian units attempting to dislodge them. By the end of the battle, the Austrians had suffered some 44 000 casualties and 22 000 captured, for the loss of approximately 9000 Prussians killed and wounded. Though the war went on for some time after, the result was inevitable.

A Prussian veteran of Königgrätz, photographed at least three decades after the battle.

The North German Confederation

With the decisive defeat of Austria in the Austro-Prussian war (the war has a lot of different names), Prussia was more or less able to dictate the fate of Central Europe. The German Confederation was disbanded completely. Italy gained the province of Venetia that they’d been after. Austria was permanently ejected from all German politics, relinquishing all aspects of political and economic dominance over any other German states.

Prussia annexed several of Austria’s German war allies, but interestingly chose not to take any Austrian territory – this helped prevent further conflict between the two countries, and enabled them to ally with each other in future wars.

Most importantly, with Prussia now being the sole German great power, they were able to pursue their aims of unification. The first step in this process was the formation of the North German Confederation one year later, in 1867. Unlike the German Confederation, which had been reminiscent of the HRE in its ineffectuality, the North German Confederation was a true state, with a strong centralised government absolutely capable of enforcing the will of the center over the provinces.

While Prussia was only one of many constituent states, the permanent head of state was the Prussian monarch, and the government was very much built on the Prussian model. The North German Confederation more or less encompassed those states which had allied with Prussia in the war, and steps were immediately taken to unify the government and promote industrialisation.

The South German states, while not part of this Confederation, were firmly within the sphere and under the protection of the North German Confederation.

The Franco-Prussian War

At the end of the German Civil War (another name for the war between Prussia and Austria), Napoleon III of France, alarmed by the sudden and massive expansion of Prussian power, demanded certain strategic territories along the Rhine river (the traditional border between France and Germany) in order to ensure that France would be capable of defending herself against the newly emerged superstate of the North German Confederation.

When informed that he could expect an immediate declaration of war if he did not accept these demands, Bismarck reportedly responded to the French ambassador with the statement “Good, then it’s war!” France did not, in the end, opt to declare war at this time.

However, they would not remain so moderate.

The Spanish Succession

In Spain, trouble was brewing. The throne was vacant from 1868 onwards, leading to a crisis in governance. Suitable candidates were few and far between, and in 1870 the throne was offered to a distant Catholic cousin of King Wilhelm I of Prussia.

Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern, the cousin in question. Date unknown, c. 1865.

When the offer was made public, France was terribly alarmed. A Hohenzollern on the throne of Spain could easily mean a two-front situation with the powerful North German Confederation to the east and an allied Spain to the south. The French demanded that this cousin’s candidacy be withdrawn, while the French public cried out in support of war.

To the surprise of many, Prussia accepted this demand. Impishly, the French government tried to squeeze further concessions from the Prussians: that no Hohenzollern candidate ever again be considered for the throne of Spain.

The French ambassador had to bypass the regular channels to make this demand, and the result was an informal conversation with the Prussian king, who was on holiday at a resort spa in one of Prussia’s newly conquered territories.

The impertinent nature of the demand, and the inappropriate way in which it was made meant that the king was quite justified in rejecting it, and taking mild offense with the ambassador.

He ordered a telegram be sent to Bismarck informing him of the exchange, and suggesting that perhaps an account of events could be released to the press in such a way as to bolster the Prussian diplomatic position. Bismarck characteristically made more than the best of this opportunity.

Wilhelm I Hohenzollern, King of Prussia (centre left), in Bad Ems c. 1870.

The Ems Telegram

The fact that the telegram gets a fancy name should tip you off that Bismarck did something big with it. Bismarck released a truthful version of the telegram, which had nonetheless been doctored to exclude the diplomatic niceties from both the French ambassador and the Prussian King.

To the wider German public, it seemed the French ambassador had terribly disrespected the King. To the French public it seemed that the Prussian King had insulted and dismissed out of hand the French ambassador, and, by extension, the French nation.

Matters were not helped by a French mistranslation implying that further communication with ambassador would be carried out through a low-ranking military officer, rather than through a high-ranking aide-de-camp as the German press release expressed. The result was that the French cabinet immediately voted for war with the North German Confederation.

Meanwhile, in Germany, public sentiment swung heavily in favour of Prussia and against France, with all significant states that had not yet joined the North German Confederation immediately pledging military allegiance to the Prussian cause (Austria being the natural exception).

There was a massive swelling of German nationalism – just as Bismarck had hoped a defensive war against France would cause. Austria had been favourable to an alliance with France against Prussia – provided the South German states stayed neutral or allied with France. That obviously did not happen.

In neutral Italy, people lined up at the Prussian embassy to volunteer against France. As France was the clear aggressor, there was no call in the UK or Russia to support France. This would, ultimately, be a war between Little Germany (without Austria) and France.

Franco-German military situation

French soldiers by a cannon. 23 July 1870.

France was not in so poor a situation as Austria had been in 1866 – indeed, it was the French military’s prowess that had provoked the sweeping and effective military reforms that shaped the Prussian army.

However, Prussia’s reforms had taken it well beyond France in terms of both fighting spirit or élan, organisational structure, logistics, and particularly conscription. Prussia could quickly field over a million men alone in wartime, whereas France could only practically field some 300 000 men.

France had been in the process of reforming their military to match the Prussians’, but the war came before the reforms were fully implemented. When war broke out, the Prussians had mobilised their reserve well before the French had even brought their entire standing force to the border.

Naturally, Prussia’s German allies were not quite as militarily adept, but they were placed under the effective Prussian central command, and so were able to integrate well. Further, the French cabinet’s vote for war was only followed by an actual declaration of war three days after, allowing the Germans ample time to mobilise, organise, and lay plans.

Finally, while the Prussians had a well worked-out campaign plan for any realistic scenario in which war is fought against France. France, on the other hand, had only worked out a defensive campaign plan some years prior, in case of a Prussian attack. They had no pre-planned idea of what they were going to do when it was France going on the offensive.

First Engagements

The French initially moved to occupy the German border town of Saarbrücken as a launching point for an invasion of Germany. As the name implies, the town is built on a bridge over the Saar river. However, the town was a poor invasion point, having little connection to the German railway and river networks.

Furthermore, the Germans had mobilised far quicker than the French had anticipated, and (accurate) reports of a large German army massing to the south prompted the French Army of the Rhine (the primary French fighting force) to retreat from the town.

They were soon forced out of their positions just behind the Saar river near the town of Spicheren (thanks in large part to poor French communication) and thereafter were entirely on the retreat.

Prussian troops charge French positions atop Rothenberg, near Spicheren. Röchling, 1890.

Encirclement at Metz

The German (and particularly Prussian) forces hounded the French retreat. While Prussian commanders tended to be overly aggressive, French commanders tended to be indecisive. This led to a series of engagements around the heavily fortified town of Metz, near the border.

The overall Prussian strategy was to push the French army into defensive positions within the town, so that the entire army could be trapped and placed under siege. They did this by repeatedly engaging the French along any other possible line of retreat, corralling the army into the town.

This required some extraordinary efforts from the Prussians, including the Battle of Mars-la-Tour, where 30 000 Prussians fought the entire 160 000-man Army of the Rhine in a successful attempt to block their passage away from Metz to the west.

At the end of that day’s fighting, the French general was under the impression that he’d been fighting against an equal force.

This was followed two days later by the Battle of Gravelotte. This was the largest battle of the war, where the Germans finally forced the Army of the Rhine to retreat into Metz with no remaining escape route.

The graveyard of St. Privat was perhaps the most hard-won part of the battlefield of Gravelotte for the Prussians. Here the surrender of the last French defenders (distinguishable by their red trousers) is pictured. De Neuville, 1881.

Disaster at Sedan

While the Army of the Rhine was suffering its disastrous string of defeats, Napoleon III had taken command of the newly constituted Army of Châlons – created the day before the noose was drawn tight around Metz at Gravelotte.

This 130 000-strong army was marched north towards Belgium, with the intention being to avoid the German forces then swing south to rescue the Army of the Rhine from the siege of Metz. However, the march was far, and fast, tiring the men out terribly.

Near Beaumont, far northwest of Metz, the French were surprised in their tents by a Prussian army and forced to retreat further northwest with 7500 casualties and many guns lost.

They chose to make their stand at the old fortress of Sedan. The French commanders, underestimating the German strength, believed that the outdated fortress and the hilly terrain surrounding it would provide them with a secure position for their men to rest, recuperate, and resupply. They were wrong.

The Prussian forces quickly surrounded the French positions and, through incredible weight in firepower, immediately began driving the French back into tighter and tighter areas.

A contemporary photograph of the fighting at La Moncelle, where the heaviest and most desperate combat of the battle took place.

French counterattacks and breakout attempts throughout the day all failed with heavy casualties. The remaining portion of the French forces outside the fortress was eventually forced into a nearby forest in complete disarray, where they were shelled non-stop until they surrendered en-masse to the first Prussian unit to enter the forest.

The French forces within Sedan itself, faced with overwhelming amounts of artillery fire and the loss of all positions outside the town, had no choice but to surrender as well.

104 000 men were captured, with the remainder all being killed or wounded. The surviving French military command was captured, including Napoleon III himself. Nearly half of the French military had been completely wiped out, with the other half trapped permanently at Metz. The war was decided in Germany’s favour.

Otto von Bismarck (left) escorting the captured French Emperor. Camphauzen, 1877.

The Fall of the Second French Empire

Prussia found itself in the bemusing position of having won too thoroughly. With Napoleon III’s capture along with every high-ranking French military commander not bottled up in Metz (and so unable to independently communicate with the French public), there was no one left to credibly sign a surrender document.

This was made much worse by the fact that on news of Napoleon III’s capture reaching Paris, a bloodless revolution ensued. A Government of National Defense was declared, which vowed to expel the Germans. The Germans promptly laid siege to Paris.

Meanwhile, the new French government tried to muster guerilla efforts and militia armies in the provinces. The Germans had not intended to actually have to occupy France, but they nonetheless marched about, defeating French efforts to muster armies first along the Loire river, then in Northern France, and finally in Eastern France.

Eventually, four months after German victory was completely assured with the battle of Sedan, armistice was signed.

The Prussian Army on parade. This is not unusual, except that the parade is being held in Paris, in 1871.

Alsace-Lorraine and the German Empire

French schoolchildren being instructed not to forget France’s territories lost to Germany, coloured in black on the map. The artist was originally from Metz, which was annexed as part of Alsace-Lorraine, and this painting was titled “The Black Stain”. The French really wanted it back. Bettanier, 1887.

Prussia conquered Alsace-Lorraine from France as a result of the war. If that name is at all familiar to you, it’s because the French were obsessed with getting that territory back ever after, and it’s frequently listed among the primary causes of the First World War.

Then the Germans (and particularly the Nazis) were obsessed with getting it back from the French after the First World War, leading to it often being listed among the primary causes of the Second World War.

More importantly, The South German states, in a wave of nationalistic public sentiment, elected to join the North German Confederation on 1 January 1871, shortly before the end of the war. A new constitution was drafted for the country, in which it was renamed the German Empire. The German nation was officially proclaimed at the captive palace of Versaille.

This is the German Empire the article is about. If the North German Confederation was a bit of a shock, the German Empire’s sudden inclusion of the South German states was a lightning strike. The German states had been rapidly industrialising since the mid-19th century, and, now combined, the economy of the German Empire was the third-largest in the world – exceeded only by the United States of America and the combined economy of the United Kingdom and all her overseas dominions.

That, and almost unquestionably the world’s strongest military – having just single-handedly utterly defeated and humiliated France, traditionally the greatest continental military power – meant that Germany was now a permanent, dominant player in European politics.

Bismarck puppeteering the emperors of Russia, Austria, and Germany. PUNCH, 1884.

German Unification

The legacy of the Holy Roman Empire had been a fractured collection of tiny, squabbling states, whose public loyalty had been to individual princes. From 1806 to 1848, German nationalism grew, until it reached a boiling point with public, revolutionary demands for unification.

Prussia, despite crushing the revolutions, shifted their policy permanently towards establishing a German Nation. Under Bismarck’s guidance, a series of successful foreign policies were implemented. With the swelling of Prussian influence in 1866 against Austria, and the galvanisation of the German peoples against France in 1870, the objective of a unified German Empire under Prussian control was finally achieved in 1871.

The years ahead would not be easy for the new Empire, however, and diplomatic bungling on the part of its third Emperor led it squarely to its difficult position at the start of the First World War, 40 years later.

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Spain is made up of unique cultures and complex history spanning surprisingly diverse regions. Because of this, few Spanish myths and legends are country-wide. Rather, the country is made up of local folklore particular to the different regions of Spain, as well as different periods in its long history.

We’ve put together a list of the best Cantabrian, Andalusian, and Catalonian myths and legends. As well as some Spanish mythology so popular that you’ll find them anywhere in the country!

Popular Spanish legends

Spanish legends have their roots in real stories and periods in history. But considering the presence of dragons, undead horses, and other mythical creatures, you can imagine there’s been a smidge of exaggeration over the years.

These are the most fascinating and popular legends across Spain.

The legend of San Jorge

Celebrated across various regions of Spain is Saint George’s Day. One of the main celebrations of this event is the commemoration of the legend of San Jorg (Sant Jordi, Saint George).

According to the legend, there was a fierce dragon wreaking havoc on the people of Montblanc (although that place name changes depending on where you are). It breathed poison, capable of killing with a single snort. It also ate all the livestock, and just generally caused a great deal of trouble.

To appease the dragon, the people of Montblanc offered it two sheep every day. This worked for a while until they started to run out of sheep, and it once again became a looming threat.

So, the villagers decided that rather than have a dragon running rampant and killing whoever it pleased, they would offer as sacrifice one person every day. The villagers would draw lots to see who it would be, so that it always remained fair.

One day the princess drew the losing straw. The king was devastated, but he would not interfere, and she went off to the dragon’s cave. Just when she was about to be eaten (and in some versions, when she was already in the dragon’s gullet), a knight came to save her. He stabbed the dragon in the neck, killing it and freeing the people from its terror.

Where the dragon’s blood fell a bush of blood-red roses grew. Saint George, a new hero, plucked one of the roses and gave it to the princess.

What’s more, when this young hero was offered all the riches he could conceive of for saving their lives, George asked that it be given to the kingdom’s inhabitants instead. Truly a day to be celebrated!

Comte Arnau/ Comte Mal

The story of Comte Arnau is a famous Catalonian ballad from the 16th century. The story revolves around a legendary and lecherous nobleman from Ripollès.

This nobleman committed two terrible sins. He had sexual relations with an abbess, and he refused to pay his vassals for work they had done for him. Now, apparently this was quite enough wrongdoing for the most wretched punishment. And so, Count Arnau is cursed to wander the earth for all eternity on an undead horse, accompanied by demonic hounds and fire that burns his flesh.

It’s quite the topic for a popular song, and one that would certainly encourage piety and prompt payments.

The Lovers of Teruel

These are the tombs of two mummified corpses thought to be the famous lovers

A legendary and tragic love story, the lovers of Teruel are the subject of many artworks. The lovers – Isabel and Diego – knew each other since childhood and were madly in love with one another, although very young. But Diego was the second son of a family on hard times, and Isabel’s family was wealthy and noble.

Isabel’s father insisted that they could not get married due to their difference in wealth and stature. But Diego told him that if he could just give him five years to make his name, he would return as a suitable partner for his daughter. After all, she was still young.

Diego left, and for five years his love heard nothing from him. But finally, he had amassed his wealth and waited the allotted time, and they could finally be married. But Diego returned a day late – and in that single day, Isabel’s father had married her off against her will.

Devastated, Diego snuck to her window, and begged her to kiss him, or else he would die. She too was heartbroken, but insisted that she could not, as she was now a married woman and had to be faithful. He asked again for a final kiss, but she was firm in her duty. So, shattered and having lost all that he sought, Diego fell at her feet and died.

Isabel was so struck with grief, that at his funeral she opened his casket, kissed him in death as she could not in life, and died there, embracing him.

Los amantes de Teruel by Antonio Muñoz Degrain – the Romance-era painting inspired by the tragic lovers

Spanish folklore and myths

Similar to legends but without any firm footing in reality, myths are a beautiful form of symbolic storytelling. In Spain, like in many other countries around the world, they’re used to scare kids straight, make a point, and just make for a damn good story round the fire.

These three stories are long-time Spanish favourites – and for good reason!

El Coco

El Coco is a well-known Spanish myth popular throughout the Spanish diaspora. It’s quite the scare tactic – Coco is a child-eating monster that wanders the streets with a black bag, searching for misbehaving children to kidnap and eat.

Coco only eats naughty children (must be a difference in texture), which is probably why the myth is so popular among parents. He’ll gulp up a child without a trace, or steal them away to devour later.

Interestingly, he’s quite a shapeless figure with no distinctive features. In some communities, El Coco is a hairy monster. In others its a dragon. And in still others, like much of Portugal, Coco is a ghost monster.

Caballucos del Diablu

A myth from Northern Spain, Caballucos are the damned souls of sinners. Every magical San Juan Night (23 June) the Caballucos are released.

A bonfire is lit as part of the celebrations, and the Caballucos’ burst from the ashes, screaming out their rage and regret at their misdeeds, and fury at being contained for the year.

Caballucos del Diablu (the little horses of the Devil) look much like dragonflies or winged horses, and each is a different colour according to their sins. The devil rides atop one of them, and they go in search of trouble, not coming near the bonfire again while they’re free – avidly avoiding it, in fact.

The creatures steal four-leafed clovers to take the luck from others. They trample and burn crops (although how they can cause much trample destruction with their tiny little hooves, I don’t know). And they sometimes attack people – so clearly, they haven’t learnt from their punishment.

Santa Compaña

Known by a lot of different names, the Santa Compaña is a procession of the undead among the living. You’ll find the Santa Compaña in our Portugal mythology post as well, as the two countries share the Iberian peninsula and many of the same cultural traits and history.

This procession of souls in anguish is led by a local parisher under a curse. He carries a cross and a cauldron in his hands, and is followed by the dead, who sing haunting songs and foreshadow death in the community.

A traditional ghost story, the Santa Compaña can be identified by a heavy fog and the smell of wax in the air – as the procession carry burning candles.

They themselves are not violent. But if you see them, the stories say to lie face down on the ground. Because spotting them means that either you will die, or the curse will fall onto you. In which case, you’ll lead the dead, and then you’ll die – from exhaustion and sleep deprivation.

L’ Home dels nassos

The Man of the Noses is a curious character that you’ll find joining the Spanish New Years celebrations every year. Barcelona’s parade includes a giant figure of him, so if you’re in the city around this time, be sure to keep an eye out for him.

According to the folktale, this nosey man has one nose for every day of the year – 365 noses – and loses one every day. However, he only leaves his home on the 31st of December, so this is the only day you can hope to spot him.

Parents used to send their children out to search for the man of the noses on Old Years Eve – and at some points in history, a man would actually be sitting in a prominent place, with his sheaves and sheaves of toilet paper to blow all 365 of his noses. It’s a cute, random story mostly meant for kids, and a good bit of fun for the imagination.

Spanish mythical creatures

While many ancient Spanish myths have been lost, we still know a little bit about their mythological creatures. Whether because of artworks, lullabies, tales or any number of references.

These creatures and figures are from various regions in Spain – and some spill over into neighbouring Portugal. They’re brilliant, so be sure to give them all a read and let us know your favourites!

Cuélebre

The Cuélebre is a serpentine dragon-creature with bat wings. Like the well-known dragon, the Cuélebre guards fantastical treasures.

It is an immortal being, but continues to grow throughout its life, its scales growing thick and heavy. One day, when it grows too heavy for this world, the Cuélebre flies off to another land or buries itself deep in the sea – depending on the various myths.

This dragon-creature seldom moves but can create a great deal of trouble for the people near it, making a terrible whistling sound and devouring innocents. So according to the myths, people had to bring it food to spare their lives, unless some brave hero slew the serpent.

Nuberu

An Asturian god or dwarf-figure (depending on the local folklore), Nuberu had power over the weather. His appearance differs quite strongly depending on where you are. But as a dwarf, he’s usually old and very ugly, and can even appear in stories with wings. As a god, he rides a wolf-drawn chariot and wears a patch over his eye.

Nuberu can be cruel and callous with humans, but also kind (fickle as the weather). So ugly or not, it’s best to be generous with him.

Duende

A Duende puppet from a Spanish festival

You may know the Duende from Portuguese mythology – the sprite-like creature is one of the most famous mythical figures from Iberia. It’s a mischievous house spirit who can be helpful (but never seen). More often though, it causes lots of sneaky trouble, and can be easily irked.

Aloja & Xana

A Catalan myth, Alojas are beautiful and benevolent ‘water-women’. They live near or in freshwater sources, and are said to represent the lifegiving nature of the water. Prideful but kind, Alojas bring prosperity to the areas they live in.

They live for thousands of years, and are usually considered nocturnal and bright-eyed. They are also shape-shifters, turning into blackbirds to explore unwatched.

Similarly, the Asturian Xana is an enchanting water-woman with a hypnotic voice. There’s a lot of variety in their lore, but they can be malicious, stealing people or switching their babies with human children. They can also be generous, giving gifts of treasure to good passers-by.

Witches

Spain has a long and sad history of mistrust and violence towards women who were perceived as witches. Basque, Spain, is the site of the biggest witch trial in history following the Spanish Inquisition.

In Spain, witches were considered to have made a pact with the devil for their powers. They would sow evil herbs to ruin crops, and curse people. In Catalan tradition, they bore the mark of the devil. You could identify a witch by washing her mark with holy water – if she was indeed a witch, it wouldn’t wash off, and bad luck to anyone with a birthmark.

Basajarau

A lovely drawing of the basajarau by mrkamehameha

Also known as Bonjarau or Bosnerau, this peaceful giant is considered ‘lord of the woods’. Huge and hairy, the Basjarau hollers to let shepherds know when threats are near. In return, he collects a bit of bread from the sleeping humans at night.

Despite this peaceful coexistence, the Basajarau also bears the Catalan and Aragonese mark of the devil – one lame leg. He walk with a tree trunk as a walking stick, leaving giant circular prints in his wake. In some folk stories, it’s his feet that are circular.

Muladona

Translating to mule-woman, the Muladona is a mule with the head of a woman. According to the myth, she’s a woman cursed to this body for being irreverent. In some versions she also has wings, and in all, she is very unfortunate-looking.

Nitus

This funny little creature is as small as a grain of sand, and was considered an excuse for bad memory. The Nitus enters the ear and burrows its little body into the brain, eating at the memory and creating fatigue.

Ramidreju

The Ramidreju is a weasel-like creature in Cantabrian-Spanish mythology. Green and with little tusks and snout, the long-bodied creature is only born once every hundred years.

It’s one of the few mythical creatures you’d seek out rather than avoid. Its green fur is all-healing, and it has a pleasant tendency to seek out gold and treasures.

A few lesser-known figures

Such a folkloric place, Spain is sure to have hundreds more mythological creatures. These are just a few:

• Dip – an emissary of the devil, Dip is a hairy black dog which is lame in one leg (a mark of the devil)
• Marraco – a dragon with a fantastically wide mouth which makes it easier to eat humans whole
• Tartalo – a Basque giant with one eye and a taste for young people (the kind of people who’d want to stray into the mountains and need to be warned away)

Last Thoughts on Spanish Myths

Clearly, Spain has some fantastically interesting and unique myths! And you’ll find that no two villages have exactly the same folk stories and mythical figures. Particularly across the once-separate regions, you’ll find few similarities. But this only makes travelling Spain more exciting.

If you can delve deep into the stories of Spain – of Catalan, Basque, Cantabria, Aragon, and Asturias, among others – you’ll come out with a brightened imagination and a new appreciation for the varied Spanish culture.

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